These brief summaries (below) are based on abstracts submitted by the
authors and are provided to show an interested person the kind of studies
to be discussed at ICCF-10. This listing does not guarantee that all
papers will be actually given at ICCF-10. This list includes the title,
author, and the summary written by Storms (in
bold print). Items are sorted by the principal author's last
name.
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Experimental Observation And Possible Way Of Creation Of Anomalous
Isotopes And Stable Superheavy Nuclei Via Process Of Electron-Nuclear
Collapse
Stanislav V. Adamenko
A variety of nuclear reactions are proposed to be produced by a
superheavy particle that is generated in the machine they use.
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Ascending Diffusion Or Transmutation
Dmitriy D.Afonichev
Surface of palladium exposed to discharge in D2 gas is examined by
XPS and found to contain many transmutation products.
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High-Frequency Radiation And Tritium Channel.
Dmitriy D. Afonichev
Titanium exposed to D2 at 840°C and 24 Kpa emits high frequency
radiation and generates tritium.
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Characteristics of Compact and Practical “Solid Deuterium Nuclear
Fusion Reactor”
Yoshiaki Arata and Yue Chang Zhang
An undefined material is welded in D2 gas and found to produce
He-4.
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Chief Challenge to Cold Fusion Theory?
Robert W. Bass
Proposes a theory that can be tested by predicting whether nuclear
effects occur in the four combinations: H2+Ni, D2+Ni, H2+Pd, and
D2+Pd.
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Generalized Cold Fusion Demonstration Protocol
Robert W. Bass, Michael C. H. McKubre
Proposes a mathematical protocol to test the reality of cold
fusion.
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MetaStable Deuterium (MSD) as Ideal Cold Fusion Fuel
Robert W. Bass
Proposes metastable deuterium (MSD) as an ideal cold fusion
fuel.
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Optimal Wavelength for Laser-Induced Cold Fusion
Robert W. Bass
Proposes to calculate the ideal wavelength required to initiate the
Letts effect as being 40.38 nm.
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Spectrum of Resonant Transparency of Coulomb Barrier
Robert W. Bass
Proposes to calculate the spectrum of resonant transparency for
coulomb barrier.
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The Cold Fusion Phenomenon: a Hypothesis
Colin K. Campbell
Proposes a process to explain cold fusion energy.
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Catalytic Fusion of Deuterium: II, Heat Output and Activation Energy
from New Palladium Catalyst
Les Case
Compares heat generated when a 0.1%Pd catalyst is exposed to either
H2 or D2.
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Energetic Charged Particles from Deuterium-Metal Systems
F. E. Cecil, H. Liu and C. S. Galovich
Describes energetic particle emission from metal systems containing
deuterium and subjected to changes in temperature and electric
current.
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Thermal and isotopic anomalies when Pd cathodes are electrolysed in
electrolytes containing Th-Hg salts dissolved at micromolar concentration
in C
2H
5OD/D
2O mixtures.
Francesco Celani, A. Spallone, P. Marini, V. di Stefano
Describes studies using a new electrolyte based on
C2H5OD/D2O mixtures containing Th(NO3)4
and a Pd cathode. Anomalous energy and elements are detected.
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Coherence Factors In Many-Particle Three-Level Systems
Irfan Chaudhary and Peter Hagelstein
Proposes a model based on coherence factors in a many particle
system.
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Few-Body Nuclear Wavefunctions
Irfan Chaudhary and Peter Hagelstein
Proposes a model to describe anomalies in metal deuterides involving
constructed antisymmetric wavefunctions for the three-nucleon and
four-nucleon states.
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The Application of Multiple Scattering Theory (MST) in Calculating the
Deuterium Flux Permeating the Pd Thin Film
Si Chen, Xing Z. Li
Peaks in the diffusion rate of D in Pd are observed and attributed
to resonance processes that come about as deuterons pass through
Pd.
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Comment On Carbon Production In Deuterium-Metal Systems
Dan Chicea
Describes studies of the surface of cathodes made from Pd or
sputtered films of Pd or Ti. Abnormal amounts of carbon are found on the
surfaces after electrolysis.
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Accountability in Research in the Cold Fusion Controversy
Scott R. Chubb
Describes his effort to get the cold fusion experience published in
Accountability in Research.
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Concerning The Roles of Theory, Computation, and Experiment In
LENR's
Scott R. Chubb
Describes the history and basic assumptions of the ion band state
theory.
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Impact of Boundary Effects Involving Broken Gauge Symmetry on
LENR's
Scott R. Chubb
Goes into greater detail about the ion band state theory and applies
it to the Iwamura experiments.
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LENR: Self-Trapping and Non Self-Trapping States
Talbot A. Chubb
Explains the difference between self-trapping and nonself-trapping
of D+ in a Pd lattice and how the presence of CaO in the Iwamura
experiment can make more nonself-trapped D+.
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LENR: The Cold Fusion and Transmutation Connection
Talbot A. Chubb
Proposes that lattice size determine whether transmutation or fusion
can occur by a coherent process.
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Practical Techniques in CF Research
Dennis J. Cravens, Dennis G. Letts
To be submitted
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Effects Of Hydrogen Loading By Aqueous Electrolysis On Radioactivity Of
Uranium
J. Dash and D. Chicea
Uranium was electrolyzed as the cathode in an electrolyte containing
H2O. Changes in the emitted radiation are observed that indicated
increased decay rate to Th234.
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4He Detection In A Cold Fusion Experiment
A.De Ninno, A. Frattolillo, A. Rizzo, E. Del Giudice
Describes measurement of heat and He4 from Pd electrolyzed in
LiOD.
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Are Nuclear Transmutations Observed At Low Energies Consequences Of Qed
Coherence?
E. Del Giudice, A. De Ninno, A. Frattolillo
Discusses whether the fusion reaction itself can initiate additional
nuclear reactions.
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Triple D Fusion Between Deuterons And The Nuclei Of Lattice Trapped D
2 Molecules
Kjeld. C. Engvild and Ludwik Kowalski
Discusses three-boson interaction to explain fusion between three D
in a metal lattice.
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Theory of Low-Temperature Particle Showers
John C. Fisher
Proposes to explain a shower of particles observed to originate from
the gas space within an electrolytic cell using the idea of halo nuclei
containing polyneutrons.
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Background To Cold Fusion: The Genesis Of A Concept
M. Fleischmann
Gives the early history of the cold fusion experiments done by
P-F.
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The “Instrument Function” of Isoperibolic Calorimeters Excess Enthalpy
Generation Due To The Parasitic Reduction of Oxygen
M. Fleischmann
Describes the basis of P-F calorimetric studies and how the
measurements were converted into correct values to obtain excess
energy.
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Stabilization of High-Level, Radioactive Waste
Hal Fox
Proposes to explain the P-F effect as resulting from the effect of
charged clusters.
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New Energy Devices Reduce Atmospheric Pollution
Hal Fox
Suggests that various new energy devices can reduce atmospheric
polution.
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Fusion Reaction Within A Microcrack With CFC Lattice Structure At Low
Energy And Study Of The Non Semi-Classic Tunneling Effect
Fulvio Frisone
Proposes that microcracks in cubic deuterides, combined with
concentration of certain impurities, can reduce the height of the Coulomb
barrier for D-D fusion.
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New Type Of Radioactivity
F.A. Gareev, Yu.L. Ratis, V.A. Krivitskiy, I.E. Zhidkova
Proposes a model involving novel radioactive decay that is
influenced by applied frequencies consistent with the size of the
nucleus.
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Unified Phonon-Coupled SU(N) Models For Anomalies In Metal
Deuterides
Peter Hagelstein
Describes a model in which energy is communicated between two
lattice sites by phonons, thereby allowing nuclear reactions to take place
and the resulting energy release to be communicated to the
lattice.
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Thermal to Electric Energy Conversion -- Basics, Limits, and
Potential
Peter Hagelstein
Thermoelectric energy conversion is discussed and the method is
applied to converting cold fusion heat to electric power.
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Models For Tunneling Through The Coulomb Barrier
Peter Hagelstein
Gives a history of his theoretical approach ending with a
description of the role of phonons in enhancing nuclear reactions.
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Analysis of Calorimetric Data Obtained Using Fleischmann/Pons Type
Electrochemical Cells to Determine Excess Heat
Wilford N. Hansen
The P-F calorimetric method is analyzed and applied in a general way
to other calorimeters of similar type.
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Replication Of MHI Transmutation Experiment By D
2 Gas Permeation Through Pd Complex
Taichi Higashiyama, H. Miyamaru and A. Takahashi
Replication of the Iwamura experiment is described, including a
search for He4.
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Report on Several On-Going Low Energy Nuclear Reaction Projects at
NRL
G.K. Hubler, C. Cetina, D.L. Knies and K.S. Grabowski
Several efforts to replicate previous methods for producing LENR are
being undertaken at NRL and the progress will be reported.
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Low Energy Nuclear Transmutation in Condensed Matter induced by D
2 Gas Permeation through Pd Complexes: Correlation between
Deuterium Flux and Nuclear Products
Yasuhiro Iwamura, Takahiko Itoh, Mitsuru Sakano, and Satoshi Sakai
The previous observation that Cs can be converted to Pr in a Pd-CaO
structure during passage of D2 is being studied in more detail and the
results are described.
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Evidence for Charged Particles Emanating from Deuterided Metal
Foils
Steven E. Jones, Frank W. Keeney, and A. Charles Johnson
Partially deuterated Ti foils are found to emit charged particles
consistent with the reaction d + d = t + p.
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Increase of the Output of Neutrons in Relation to Background Deuterium
Containing Electrolite at Their Electrochemical Decomposition -
Superelectrolytes
K. A. Kaliev, and J. A. Istomin
Electrolysis using higher than normal voltage is used to increase
the rate of various nuclear reactions that generate neutrons.
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Experimental Research into Characteristics of X-ray Emission from
Solid-state Cathode Medium of High-current Glow Discharge
A. B. Karabut, and S. A. Kolomeychenko
X-ray emission is measured from a high-current gas discharge device
using various gases and targets. Evidence for X-ray lasers is
given.
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Experimental Research into Secondary Penetrating Radiation when
Interacting X-ray Beams of Solid Laser with Various Materials Targets
A. B. Karabut
Characteristics of the X-radiation from the high-current gas
discharge device are described.
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Production of Excess Heat Power and Impurity Elements with Changed
Natural Ratio of Isotopes at Forming Exited Long-lived Atomic Levels with
the Energy more than 1 keV in the Solid Cathode Medium of High-current
Glow Discharge
A. B. Karabut.
Excess power measurements are described using a high-current gas
discharge device.
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Low-Energy Nuclear Fusion Reactions In Metals
Jirohta Kasagi
Various metals are bombarded by < 80 keV D+ and the rate of the
reaction D(d,p)T is studied as a function of ion energy.
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Experimental Test of Bose-Einstein Condensation Mechanism for Low
Energy Nuclear Reaction in Nanoscale Atomic Clusters
Yeong E. Kim, David S. Koltick, Ryan Pringer, Jeff Myers, Rhoda
Koltick
Describes calculations based on identical charged integer-spin
nuclei (“Bose” nuclei) confined in ion traps and predicts that the fusion
rate will increase as temperature is lowered. An experimental test of the
prediction is described.
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Quantum Many-Body Theory of Low Energy Nuclear Reaction Induced by
Acoustic Cavitation in Deuterated Liquid
Yeong E. Kim, David S. Kotlick, and Alexander L. Zubarev
Applies the above model to improving the bubble cavitation
experiments that are reported to generate neutrons.
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Calculations of Nuclear Reactions Probability in a Crystal Lattice of
Titanium Deuteride
V.A. Kirkinskii, and Yu. A. Novikov
TiD is examined as a host for the D-D fusion reaction using a
computational method based on how close two D+ ions would get within the
lattice.
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D(d,p)t Reaction Rate Enhancement in a Mixed Layer of Au and Pd
A. Kitamura*, Y. Awa, T. Minari, A. Taniike and Y. Furuyama
A sample of Pd-Au is bombarded using 15-25 keV D2+ ions and the
reaction rate for the reaction D(d,p)t is found to be two orders of
magnitude above expectations.
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Experimental Observation Of Fusion Of Precious Metals In Growing
Microbiological Associations
Alla A.Kornilova
The nuclear reaction W186 + Be9 =
Pt195 is proposed to be initiated in microbiological
cultures.
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Cold Fusion Messages from Teachers
Ludwik Kowalski
E-mail messages about cold fusion from teachers are
described.
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CF-Matter and the Cold Fusion Phenomenon
Hideo Kozima
A model based on “neutron drops” is used to explain cold
fusion.
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Laser Stimulation of Deuterated Palladium: Past and Present
Dennis Letts, and Dennis Cravens
Describes a study using a low-power laser to stimulate heat
production in a P-F cell.
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Characteristics and Effects of Ball Lightning
Edward Lewis
Describes an explanation for cold fusion based on ball lightning,
similar to the EVs proposed by Ken Shoulder.
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Cold Fusion May be Part of a Scientific Revolution
Edward Lewis
This is a philosophical paper about the relationship of CF to crisis
events.
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Progress in Gas-Loading D/Pd System, —The feasibility of a
self-sustaining heat generator—
Xing Z. Li, Bin Liu, Qing M. Wei, Nao N. Cai, Jian Tian, Xiong W. Wen, and
Dong X. Cao
When a thin film of Pd is heated to a special temperature and
deuterium is caused to pass through it, anomalous energy is
observed.
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Neutron Yield on the Electric Breakdown of Cavitation Bubbles in
Deuterium-Containing Matter
Andrei G. Lipson
Describes a sonic cavatation experiment and provides an explanation
for observation of neutron emission.
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Strong Enhancement of DD-reaction Accompanied by X-ray Generation in a
Pulsed Low Voltage High-Current Deuterium Glow Discharge with a
Ti-Cathode
A.G. Lipson, A.S. Roussetski, A.B. Karabut and G.H. Miley
A high-current pulsed gas discharge device is described that shows
anomalous behavior based on X-ray and 3 MeV proton emissions.
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Triggering A Deuterium Flux In Pd Wire Using Electromagnetic Field
Bin Liu, Xing Z. Li, Lin Yan, and Xiong W. Wen
A Pd wire is inductively coupled to a source of AC frequency and
anomalous heat is observed when the wire is exposed to D2 gas while an AC
voltage is induced.
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Enhancement of nuclear reactions due to screening effects of core
electrons
N. Luo, P. J. Shrestha, and G. H. Miley
Screening effects in an atomic lattice are described and explored
using a computer program.
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First-principles studies of ionic and electronic transport in palladium
hydride/deuteride
Nie Luo, and G. H. Miley
The effects of ion and electron transport within the atomic lattice
are explored to explain LENR.
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LENR and “Cold Fusion” Excess Heat: Their Relation to Other Anomalous
Microphysical Energy Experiments and Emerging New Energy Technologies
Eugene F. Mallove
Proposes that the heat observed in typical cold fusion experiments
may have unique and important sources other than nuclear.
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Evidence of cold fusion in Palladium exposed to atomic Deuterium
R. McIntyre
Describes an experiment where Pd is loaded with D2 at low
temperature by exposure to gas discharge and then deloaded. Neutron
production and a beta emitter are observed.
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The need for Triggering in Cold Fusion reactions
M. McKubre, K. Mullican, F. Tanzella, M. Trevithick and P. Hagelstein
To be submitted
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A Calorimetric Investigation Of The Pd / B System
M.H. Miles
Describes excess heat measurement obtained using a Pd-B cathode and
the ICARUS-2 calorimeter at the NHE laboratory (Japan).
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Correlation Of Excess Enthalpy And Helium-4 Production: A
Review
M. H. Miles
Describes and summarizes a study sponsored by the Navy showing the
relationship between P-F heat and the resulting He4.
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Fluidized Bed Experiments Using Platinum And Palladium Particles In
Heavy Water
M.H. Miles
Small particles of Pd are used as the cathode and subjected to
steady and pulsed electrolysis. Excess energy is observed.
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Review of Transmutation Reactions in Highly Loaded Lattice
G. H. Miley
Transmutation studies are reviewed and related to the possible
unique conditions required for their initiation.
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Generation Of Heat And Products During Plasma Electrolysis
Tadahiko Mizuno, Tadashi Akimoto, and Tadayoshi Ohmori
Describes the plasma electrolysis method from producing excess
energy and shows how replications can be better accomplished.
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Energetics Of Defects And Isotropic Strain In Palladium
David J. Nagel
Explores the energy that might be contributed to the observed excess
energy by defects and strains in Pd.
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Gamma Ray Detection and Surface Analysis on Palladium Electrode in DC
Glow-like Discharge Experiment
S.Narita, H.Yamada, A.Arapi, N.Sato, D.Kato, M.Yamamura, and M.Itagaki
Pd subjected to gas discharge in D2 is found to emit gamma radiation
that is proposed to result from transmutation reactions.
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Analysis Of Nuclear Transmutation Induced From Metal Plus
Multibody-Fusion-Products Reaction
Masayuki Ohta
A model involving multibody nuclear reactions is explored and
applied to recent observations.
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Detection of Energetic Charged Particles During Electrolysis
R.A. Oriani and J.C. Fisher
A CR-39 detector is used to study charged particle emission during
electrolysis of a P-F cell.
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Energetic Charged Particles Detected in the Vapor in Electrolysis
Cells
R.A. Oriani and J.C. Fisher
Energetic particles are detected in the gas above the electrolyte
using CR-39 detectors in a P-F cell
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Pd-110/Pd-108 Isotope Abundance Ratio Variations in Pd Exposed to High
Pressure Deuterium Gas in the Hollow Cathodes of Arata/ Zhang
Thomas O. Passell
The isotopic abundance's of Pd110 and Pd108 are found to be abnormal
in Pd used by Arata-Zhang after excess energy production. In addition,
excessive Zn having an abnormal isotopic abundance is also found.
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Observations Of A Porous Packed Bed Gaseous Deuterium Filled
Mini-Reactor
J. A. Patterson, J. A. O'Malley, C. E. Entenmann, J. A. Thompson
A mixture of palladium powder and diatomaceous earth was compressed
into a plug through which an electric current was passed while temperature
was measured. Anomalous energy production is claimed when the
material is exposed to D2 gas.
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The Research of Positrons Annihilation and Possible Ways of P + D
Nuclear Reactions
V. A. Romodanov
Used H2 and a low-energy glow-discharge method from which deuterium
was found to be generated by the proposed (p + p + e = d + gamma)
reaction.
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Prospects of Intensity Increase of Nuclear Reactions at Low Energy
Interaction of Hydrogen Isotopes and Possible Areas of Their
Application
V. A. Romodanov
Proposes that present knowledge allows the rate of heat and tritium
generation to be substantially increased.
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Tritium Generation At Low Energy Interaction Of Hydrogen Isotopes With
Metals
V. A. Romodanov
Tritium generation is explored using mixed hydrogen isotopes and low
energy plasma. Use of a magnetic field at the surface of the target
increased tritium production by two orders of magnitude.
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The LENR-CANR.ORG Website, Its Past And Future
Jed Rothwell and Edmund Storms
The LENR-CANR.org
website is described and methods for its efficient use are
shown.
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Nuclear emissions from materials, including hydrogen and deuterium,
induced by laser beam
A.S. Roussetski, A.G.Lipson, and V.P. Andreanov
Various materials containing hydrogen or deuterium are irradiated by
a powerful laser and evidence for nuclear reactions is obtained from
emitted radiation.
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Phenomenon of an Energetic Charged Particle Emission From
Hydrogen/Deuterium Loaded Metal
A.S. Roussetski, A.G. Lipson and G.H. Miley, and E.I. Saunin
Energetic particles are emitted from Au/Pd/PdO when loaded by
various methods. A similar behavior was observed for TiDx.
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Transmutation Effects In Glow Discharge Hydrogen Experiments
Irina B. Savvatimova
Pd is subjected to low-power gas discharge in D2 and the anomalous
elements that are found to grow on the surface are analyzed using many
different methods.
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Analysis of Ni-Hydride Thin Film after Surface Plasmons Generation by
Laser Technique
C. Sibilia, S. Paoloni , E. Castagna, F. Sarto, and V. Violante
Application of a thin Ni film to a Ni surface is described and used
to obtain basic information about electronic structure.
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How to Make A Cheap and Effective Seebeck Calorimeter
Edmund Storms
A method to construct a simple, accurate, and cheap Seebeck
calorimeter is described.
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Use of a very sensitive Seebeck calorimeter to study the
Pons-Fleischmann and Letts Effects
Edmund Storms
A sensitive Seebeck calorimeter is used to study the
Pons-Fleischmann and Letts effects, which shows repeated replication of
both effects.
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What are the conditions required to initiate the LENR Effect?
Edmund Storms
A case is made for the location of nuclear activity in a P-F cell
being incorrectly identified.
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Cavitation And Fusion
Roger Stringham
Refinements to the sonoluminescent method are described and the
results of applying the method to thin foils of Ti and Pd are
shown.
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Excess Heat from Low Electrical Conductivity Heavy Water Spiral-Wound
Pd/D
2O/Pt and Pd/D
2O-PdCl
2/Pt Devices
Mitchell R. Swartz and Gayle M. Verner
A palladium cathode is subjected co-deposition of palladium from an
electrolytic solution (D2O+PdCl2) and anomalous energy is
measured.
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Photoinduced Excess Heat from Laser-Irradiated Electrically-Polarized
Palladium Cathodes in Heavy Water
Mitchell R. Swartz
A low-power laser (670 nm) is used to stimulate anomalous energy
production from a Pd cathode after co-deposition of Pd.
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Mechanism of Deuteron Cluster Fusion by EQPET Model
Akito Takahashi
The multibody fusion model is further explained.
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Studies on 3D Fusion Reactions in TiDx under Ion Beam Implantation
A. Takahashi, H. Miyamaru, K. Ochiai, Y. Katayama, T. Hayashi, and T.
Dairaku
Experimental studies using ion implantation are reviewed in light of
the multibody fusion model.
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Quantum States of Deuterons in Pd
Ken-ichi Tsuchiya
Various theories of cold fusion are reviewed and their historical
interactions are shown.
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Excess Heat in Molten Salts Of (LiCl-KCl)+(LiD+LiF) at the Titanium
Anode During Electrolysis
S. A. Tsvetkov, Filatov E. S., and Khokhlov V. A.
A molten-salt (LiD) study using a Ti anode is described and
indication of excess energy is shown.
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Possibility Of Using Of Cold Fusion For Nuclear Waste Products
Transmutation
S. A. Tsvetkov
Use of various methods to initiate cold fusion is suggested as a way
to eliminate radioactive waste products by employing transmutation
reactions.
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Search for Nuclear Ashes in Electrochemical Experiments.
V. Violante, M. Apicella, F. Sarto, A. Rosada, and E. Santoro
A successful search for nuclear products produced by a P-F cell is
described.
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Study of Lattice Potentials on Low Energy Nuclear Processes in
Condensed Matter
V. Violante, F. Sarto, E. Santoro, and L. Capobianco
The effect of lattice potentials on screening and the resulting
increased fusion rate is explored.
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Successful Experiments of Utilization of High-Activity Waste in the
Process of Transmutation in Growing Associations of Microbiological
Cultures
Vladimir I.Vysotskii, Valerii N. Shevel, Alexander B.Tashirev, and Alla
A.Kornilova
Ways to reduce the activity of highly radioactive material using
microbiological systems and biological transmutation are studied.
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The Theory And Experimental Investigation Of Controlled Spontaneous
Conversion Nuclear Decay Of Radioactive Isotopes
Vladimir I.Vysotskii, Alla A.Kornilova, Yuri D.Perfiliev, and Leonid
A.Kulikov
Discusses a model and experiments showing how lattice environment
changes the natural decay rate for certain kinds of radioactive
decay.
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Excess Heat in Heavy Water--Pd/C Catalyst Cathode (Case-type)
Electrolysis at the temperature near Boiling Point
Qing M. Wei, Xing Z. Li, and Yan O. Cui
A “Case” catalyst is used as the cathode in an electrolytic cell and
exess heat is observed.
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Analysis by Time-of-flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy for Nuclear
Products in Hydrogen Penetration through Palladium
H. Yamada, S. Narita, H. Onodera, H. Suzuki, N. Tanaka, T. Nyui and T.
Ushirozawa
A Pd foil subjected to diffusion of hydrogen was carefully analyzed
and found to contain unexpected elements, many with an abnormal isotopic
ratio.
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Thermal effects of hydrogen diffusion across metallic tubes
Wu-Shou Zhang, Min-Qiang Hou, and Zhong-Liang Zhang
An analysis of thermal effects caused by H2 diffusing through a
metal is given.
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Anomalous heat absorption in closed Pd|D
2O electrolysis systems
Zhao-Fu Zhang, Wu-Shou Zhang*, Min-Qiang Hou, and Zhong-Liang Zhang
Using a sensitive Seebeck calorimeter, heat absorption, rather than
heat generation, is occasionally found during electrolysis.
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Loading ratios (H/Pd or D/Pd) monitored by the electrode potential
Zhong-Liang Zhang
Use of the cell potential or the electrode potential is suggested as
a way to determine the average loading of a Pd cathode.
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